In today's digital age, understanding the basics of computers is essential. Whether you're a complete novice or looking to refresh your knowledge, this comprehensive guide to computer fundamentals will provide you with a solid foundation. From hardware components to software applications, we'll explore the key concepts that drive the world of computing.

• Introduction to Computer
• Generation of Computer
• Classification of Computer
• Computer Components
• Control Unit
• Memory Unit
• Airtmatical and Logical Unit
• Input Devices
• Output Devices
• Central Processing Unit
• Hardware and Software

- :Introduction: - 

Note: -

Charles Babbage is considered to be the “father of computer” after his invention and concept of the Analytical Engine in 1837. Ada Lovelace is often referred to as the "Mother of Computer" or the "First Programmer." She earned this recognition due to her work with Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine, a mechanical general-purpose computer design from the 1830s.

Full form of Computer: -               

                                                             C -          Common

               O -          Oriented

               M -          Machine

               P -           Particularly

               U -          Used for

               T -           Trade and

               E -           Education

               R -          Research

Characteristics of a Computer: -

Application of Computers: -

1. Banks-With computerization and networking of a large number of banks, the customers now have the facility of ATM.
2. Education: - Computer aided learning and teaching is changing the entire spectrum of our education system.
3. Business: - Computer has helped in improving business activities through the world. Computer is use in office for maintaining sales record, stock control, preparing salary etc.
4. Criminal Identification: - Computer can create photographs of criminal of criminals resembling them. This helps C.B.I staff to arrest criminals.
5. Airlines/ Railways Reservation: - These days’ computers are being used for railway/bus/airline reservation.

1. Analog Computers: - 

2. Digital Computer: -

3. Hybrid Computer: - 

• PS/2 Port: The PS/2 port, also known as the Mini-DIN connector, is a type of port that was commonly used for connecting keyboards and mouse to computers. It was named after IBM's Personal System/2 computers, which popularized its use in the 1980s and 1990s. The PS/2 port is a small, round connector with either six or four pins, depending on whether it is used for a keyboard or a mouse. The standard color coding for PS/2 ports is purple for keyboards and green for mouse.
• Parallel Port:- A parallel port is a type of interface found on computers that allows for the simultaneous transfer of multiple bits of data. It is typically used to connect peripherals such as printers, scanners, and external storage devices.
• VGA Port:- VGA stands for Video Graphics Array. It is a display standard and connector type used for connecting computers to monitors or display devices. VGA was introduced by IBM in 1987 and became one of the most popular video standards for personal computers. It's worth noting that VGA carries only video signals and does not transmit audio. For audio transmission, separate cables or connectors are required, or alternative video standards with integrated audio transmission, such as HDMI, can be used.
• HDMI Port: - HDMI stands for High-Definition Multimedia Interface. It is a digital audio/video interface that allows for the transmission of high-quality uncompressed audio and video signals between devices. HDMI is commonly used to connect devices such as televisions, monitors, projectors, Blu-ray players, gaming consoles, and computers.
• PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express) Slots: PCIe slots are used to connect expansion cards, such as graphics cards, sound cards, and network adapters. These slots provide high-speed data transfer between the CPU and the connected devices.
• SATA Ports: SATA ports are used for connecting storage devices such as hard drives and solid-state drives (SSDs) to the CPU. These ports enable high-speed data transfer and are commonly used for internal storage.
• Ethernet Port: The Ethernet port enables the connection to a wired network for high-speed data transfer and internet connectivity. 
• Motherboard:- A motherboard, also known as the mainboard or system board, is a crucial component of a computer that serves as a central hub for connecting various hardware components together. It provides the necessary electrical and data connections for the CPU, memory, storage devices, expansion cards, and other peripherals. Here are some key points about motherboards:
• Form Factor: Motherboards come in different form factors, such as ATX, Micro-ATX, and Mini-ITX, which determine their physical size and layout. The form factor determines the compatibility with the computer case and the number of expansion slots and ports available.
• CPU Socket: The motherboard features a CPU socket or socket type that determines the compatibility with specific processors. The CPU is installed into the socket, and the motherboard provides the necessary power and data connections for the CPU to function.
• Memory Slots: Motherboards have slots for inserting memory modules, such as DIMMs (Dual Inline Memory Modules). These slots determine the type and maximum amount of memory that the system can support. The memory modules provide temporary storage for data that the CPU needs to access quickly.
• Expansion Slots: Motherboards have PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express) slots or other types of slots for connecting expansion cards. These slots are used to add functionality to the system, such as graphics cards, sound cards, network adapters, and storage controllers.
• Storage Connectors: Motherboards feature connectors for various storage devices. The most common is the SATA (Serial ATA) connector for connecting hard drives and solid-state drives.
• I/O Ports: Motherboards have a range of I/O (Input/Output) ports that allow for connecting peripherals. These ports include USB ports, audio jacks, Ethernet ports, HDMI/Display Port for video output, and other specialized ports for specific purposes.
• Chipset: The motherboard's chipset is a collection of integrated circuits that manage communication between the CPU, memory, expansion cards, and other peripherals. The chipset plays a crucial role in determining the features and capabilities of the motherboard.
• BIOS/UEFI: The motherboard contains firmware known as the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) or UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface). This firmware initializes the hardware during startup, provides system configuration options, and acts as an interface between the operating system and the hardware. 

• Fan:- This is set inside and set fan face to outside so that whatever heat generated by the CPU may get colder.
• Display Adapter Card:- A display adapter card, also known as a graphics card, video card, or GPU (Graphics Processing Unit), is an expansion card that is inserted into a computer's motherboard to handle the rendering and display of visual information on a monitor or other display devices. It is responsible for generating and outputting the images, videos, and graphics that you see on your screen. It is used to link Monitor to CPU. Whatever task is being performed in CPU can be viewed and displayed to monitor with the help of this.
• Input Devices: - Input devices are hardware components that allow users to interact with a computer or electronic device by providing input or commands. They enable users to input data, commands, and instructions into the computer system. Here are some common examples of input devices:

1. Keyboard: - A keyboard is the main input device used to input data and instructions into the computer.  A standard computer keyboard typically consists of several types of keys, each serving a specific function. Here are the common types of keys found on a keyboard:

 1. Alphanumeric Keys: These are the main keys on a keyboard and include letters from A to Z and numbers from 0 to 9. They form the primary input for typing text and alphanumeric characters.

 2. Function Keys: Function keys, labeled as F1 to F12, are located in a row at the top of the keyboard. They are designed to perform specific functions depending on the software or operating system being used. Common functions include accessing help, opening menus, executing commands, and adjusting settings.

 3. Modifier Keys: Modifier keys alter the behavior of other keys when pressed in combination. The most commonly used modifier keys are Shift, Control (Ctrl), Alt, and the Windows or Command key (on Mac keyboards). They allow for various keyboard shortcuts and can enhance productivity by providing quick access to certain commands or functions.

 4. Navigation Keys: Navigation keys include the arrow keys (up, down, left, right) and additional keys like Home, End, Page Up, and Page Down. They are used to move the cursor or selection within a document or on the screen.

 5. Enter/Return Key: The Enter or Return key is used to confirm or execute a command, create a new line in a text document, or submit information in forms.

 6. Spacebar: The Spacebar is the long key located at the bottom center of the keyboard. It is used to insert spaces between words and separate elements within a document or text input field.

7. Escape Key: The Escape (Esc) key is typically found at the top left corner of the keyboard. It is used to cancel or exit a current operation or to close a dialog box or menu.

8. Delete and Backspace Keys: The Delete key is used to remove characters or items in front of the cursor, while the Backspace key deletes characters to the left of the cursor.

9. Numeric Keypad: A separate numeric keypad, located on the right side of some keyboards, provides a layout similar to a calculator and allows for numeric input and arithmetic operations.

10. Special Function Keys: Some keyboards may include additional special function keys, such as multimedia keys for controlling audio playback, volume adjustment, brightness control, and shortcut keys for launching specific applications or performing specific actions.

Here are some common special characters found on keyboards, along with their names and symbols:

2.  Mouse: - The mouse is the most used input device that lets you select and move items on the screen.

The mouse left button is used most of the time. A single click of this button selects an item and then clicking again activates the application. The right-click often displays a list of commands on the screen. You can also gain access to Property settings, with right click.

2. Joystick: - A joystick is an input device normally used in Video Parlors for playing games. It has a moving stick with some push buttons. The angle or direction of the stick movement is send to the computer as the input.
3. Scanner: - A scanner is an input device that converts physical documents, photographs, or images into digital format. It uses optical sensors to capture the content and produces a digital image that can be saved or edited on a computer.
4. Microphone: - It is an input device used to record and store voice or any other sound into a computer, generally as a .wav file. Microphone is commonly used in video conferencing and speech recognition programs.
5. Bar Code Reader: - It is an input device used for reading barcodes on various surface. A bar code reader consists of a light source, a lens and a light sensor for translating optical impulses into electrical signals.
6. OCR (Optical Character Reader):- It’s a device which detects alphanumeric characters printed or written on a paper. The text which to be scanned is illuminated by a low frequency light source. The light is absorbed by the dark areas but reflected from the bright areas. The reflected light is received by the photocells.
7. MICR (Magnetic Ink Character Reader/Recognizer): - It is kind of input device which is used to read magnetic characters from a page like on a bank cheque some magnetic characters are used which can only be read by MICR.

 Other Input Devices are Light Pen, Track Ball, and Web Cam etc.

Output Device: - Output devices are hardware components that display or present data and information from a computer or electronic device to the user. They allow users to perceive and interpret the output generated by the computer system. Here are some common examples of output devices: There are two types of output devices –

a.       Soft Output Devices

b.      Hard Output Devices

             i.     Soft Output Devices - It is the main output device that displays the processed data or information as text, images, audio or video

1. VDU (Visual Display Unit) Monitor: - This is an output Device. VDU is a Visual Soft Output device and used for getting soft Visual Output on screen. The types of VDU are given below.

1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube): - This is television like screen where the results of a computer’s tasks are displayed in this technology Cathode Ray falls on florescence screen and by deflecting rays make picture.
2. LED (Light Emitting Diode) Monitor: LED monitors are the most common type of display today. They use LED back-lighting technology, which offers energy efficiency, high brightness, and a wide color gamut. LED monitors can be further categorized into:
3. Edge-Lit LED: These monitors have LEDs placed along the edges of the screen, resulting in a slim design
4. Direct-Lit LED: These monitors have a grid of LEDs positioned directly behind the screen, providing more uniform brightness across the display.
5. LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Monitor: LCD monitors were prevalent before LED technology became popular. They use CCFL (Cold Cathode Fluorescent Lamp) back-lighting, which provides moderate energy efficiency and color accuracy.
6. IPS (In-Plane Switching) Monitor: IPS monitors are a type of LCD display known for their wide viewing angles and accurate color reproduction. They offer better color consistency and viewing angles compared to traditional TN (Twisted Nematic) panels, making them suitable for tasks requiring color accuracy, such as graphic design and professional photo editing.
7. TN (Twisted Nematic) Monitor: TN monitors are another type of LCD display that offers fast response times and high refresh rates. They are commonly used in gaming monitors due to their ability to display fast-moving visuals with minimal motion blur. However, they typically have narrower viewing angles and lower color accuracy compared to IPS monitors.
8. OLED (Organic Light Emitting Diode) Monitor: OLED monitors use organic compounds that emit light when an electric current is applied. They offer exceptional color reproduction, high contrast ratios, and fast response times. OLED displays also have the advantage of being flexible and thin. However, they tend to be more expensive and are less common in desktop monitors compared to OLED screens used in smartphones and TVs.

These are some of the commonly encountered types of monitors in the market. Each type has its own advantages and considerations, and the choice depends on the specific needs and preferences of the user.

2. Speakers: - Speakers are the output devices to play sound. They may be built into the system unit or connected with cables. Through them we can listen to music and sound effects from the computer.

ii. Hard Output Devices – The Output received from these devices cannot be edited.

1. Printers: - A printer is a peripheral device used for printing the output on paper or any other printable media. The printed information on the paper is called Hard Copy. Printers are of two types.

b)      Impact Printers

c)      Non-impact Printers

1. Impact Printers: - Impact printers print by the impact of dot wires on the paper. They are also called character printers. Impact Printers are classified as follow.

i)       Daisy wheel printers: - These printers have good letter formation, but cannot produce graphics. They produce letter-quality documents. The range of speed of these printers varies from 60 cps to 120 cps (character per second).

ii)      Dot-Matrix Printer: - They are the only impact printers in use nowadays. As they are noisy and do not have good printing quality, they are losing popularity. Besides text, they are capable of printing charts and graphics. The speed of dot matrix ranges from 50 to 400 cps.

2. Non Impact Printers: - Non Impact printers do not strike against the linked ribbon or paper on which they are printing. The only thing that touches the paper at all is the ink that is used, Non Impact printers have become very popular because they are quieter than impact printers and their printing has clarity and quality. These are as follow:

iii)     Inkjet Printers: - They produce images by spraying tiny droplets of ink onto the paper. They have very high quality output and can also produce colored graphics. These printers are less noisy. The common speed of inkjet printers is 300 dpi (dots per inch).

iv)     Laser Printers: - These printers use photocopy technology to print. They have very high speed and are quieter in operation. They produce very high image quality. They are mostly used for DTP (Desktop Publishing) purpose. They can handle about 6 to 10 pages of printed material per minute.

3.   2.   Plotter: - Plotter is an output device that is used to produce graphical output on papers. It uses single color or multi color pens to draw pictures as blue print etc. Plotter is used to print the maps and architecture of infrastructure. It is used in the engineering applications.

Both Input and Output Devices: -Both input output devices Modems, Network Card, Touch Screen and Headsets (Speaker and Microphones).

-: Central Processing Unit:-

Processing Device means calculation comparisons and decisions. The processing devices are Central Processing Unit (CPU); also called Microprocessor is a small chip in a computer which receives Input and provides output. It is composed of silicon and contains millions of transistors. The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is often referred to as the "brain" of a computer. It is a crucial component responsible for executing instructions, performing calculations, and coordinating the activities of various hardware and software components within a computer system. Here are some key points about the CPU:

 The components of CPU: -

There are three components of CPU (Central Processing Unit)

1.      Control Unit

2.      Memory Unit

3.      Arithmetical and Logical Unit

1. Control Unit: - This unit controls the operation of each and every component of the computer system. It also controls the transfer of data and instructions among other units of computer.

 2.    External Memory: - External memory is also known as auxiliary memory or secondary memory. It is needed since main memory is expensive and is insufficient to store a huge amount of data. The speed of external memory is much slower than internal memory. Some commonly used storage devices are: hard disks, CD/DVD, pen drive etc.

i. USB Flash Drive: Also known as a thumb drive or a USB stick, a flash drive is a portable storage device that uses flash memory to store data. It connects to a computer via a USB port and is widely used for transferring and storing files.

ii. External Hard Drive: An external hard drive is a standalone storage device that connects to a computer via a USB, Thunderbolt, or eSATA port. It offers a large storage capacity, ranging from several hundred gigabytes to multiple terabytes, and is commonly used for backup, data storage, and transferring large files.

iii. Memory Card: Memory cards are small, portable storage devices commonly used in cameras, smartphones, tablets, and other portable devices. They come in different formats such as SD (Secure Digital), microSD, CompactFlash, and others. Memory cards offer varying capacities and are used for storing photos, videos, and other data.

iv. Solid State Drive (SSD): An SSD is a type of storage device that uses solid-state memory to store data. It is similar to a traditional hard drive but has no moving parts, resulting in faster access speeds, lower power consumption, and increased durability. External SSDs are available in portable form factors and are used for high-speed data transfer and storage.

v. A CD (Compact Disc): is an optical storage medium that stores digital data. It is a flat, circular disc made of plastic with a reflective layer. CDs are used for various purposes such as audio recordings, software distribution, and data storage. They have a storage capacity of up to 700 MB. 

vi. DVD (Digital Versatile Disc): is an optical storage medium that stores digital data. It is similar in size to a CD but offers higher storage capacity. DVDs are widely used for storing and distributing high-quality video and audio content, as well as computer data. They use advanced encoding techniques and smaller pits and lands on the disc to achieve storage capacities of up to 4.7 GB (single-layer) or 8.5 GB (dual-layer). DVDs come in different formats, such as DVD-Video for movies, DVD-ROM for computer data, and recordable and re-writable formats. While digital streaming has gained popularity, DVDs remain relevant for certain applications and offline content consumption.

These external memory devices offer flexibility, portability, and additional storage capacity, allowing users to expand the storage capabilities of their devices and securely store their data. 

Hardware and Software

Hardware: It refers to the physical components of a computer system or electronic device. It encompasses all the tangible and visible parts that make up the computer or device and enable it to function. Hardware can be categorized into different types based on their specific functions within a system.

Software: Software refers to a set of programs, instructions, and data that enable computers and electronic devices to perform specific tasks or operations. It is a collection of intangible components that govern the functioning of hardware and provide a platform for users to interact with the system. Software can be categorized into different types:

1. System Software: System software refers to a type of software that provides a platform for the operation and management of computer hardware and other software applications. It serves as an intermediary between the hardware and the user, enabling the smooth functioning of the computer system. System software performs essential tasks to ensure the overall operation and coordination of various components within the system. ex: Operating System, Drivers, Utilities etc.

2. Application Software: Application software refers to programs designed to perform specific tasks or applications, such as word processing, spreadsheet calculations, graphic design, video editing, web browsing, and gaming. These software applications are created to fulfill the needs and requirements of users in various domains. ex: MS Word, MS Excel, Photoshop, Coral Draw, Tally ERP. 9 etc.

    Software is typically written in programming languages and consists of lines of code that provide instructions for the computer to execute. It can be installed, executed, updated, and removed as needed. 

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